Social psychological principles of prejudice and attitudes

Social psychological principles of prejudice and attitudes Many people believe prejudice and discrimination mean the same thing .In fact there is a very important difference between them. Prejudice is an attitude, whereas discrimination refers to the behaviour or action. If someone dislikes a given minority, but does not allow this dislike to effect their behaviour then the person shows prejudice but not discrimination. According to Baron and Byrne (1991) prejudice is an attitude towards the member of some group based solely on their membership in that group. In contrast discrimination involves negative action directed at the member of the group. Allport (1954) argued that there are five different stages of discrimination. Anti-location: Verbal attacks are directed against some other group. Avoidance: the other group is systematically avoided. Discrimination: the other group is deliberately treated less well than other groups in term of civil rights. Physical attack: Membership of the other group are attacked and their property is destroyed. Extermination: there are deliberate attempts to kill all members of the other group. The word prejudice can be broken down in to pre (meaning before) and judice (meaning judgement). Therefore to be prejudice towards an individual or group shows a pre-judge of that individual or group. There are three elements to prejudice. Cognitive element: This involves the beliefs held about the group. These beliefs will be in the form of stereotyping, common but over simple views of what particular groups of people are like. The affective element: This involves the feelings experienced in response to the group. If we are prejudiced against a group we may experience anger, fear, hate or disgust when we encounter a member of that group. The behavioural element: This consists of our actions toward the object of our prejudice. Behaving differently towards people based on their membership of a group is called discrimination. Our actions against members of a group against which we hold a prejudice can rang from avoidance and verbal criticism to mass extermination. Psychological approach to explain prejudice falls in to two broad areas. Social approach centres on the social factors that contribute to prejudice in general. Whereas individual differences approaches centres on what factors make some people more prone to prejudice. Tajel and Turner (1979) proposed the social identity theory. This theory is one of a group of theoryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s that share the assumption that prejudice can be explained by our tendency to identify ourselves as part of a group and to classify other people as either within or outside that group. Tajfel and Turner carried out a number of laboratory experiment called the minimal group Tajfel (1970) carried out an experiment to look at intergroup discrimination. To test his theory sixty four schoolboys aged between 14 and 15 year old were selected. The participants were initially informed that the experiment was research investigating vision. The boys were shown clusters of dots on a screen and asked to estimate the number of dots on the picture. The participants were then divided in to two groups group A and group B. Group A was classified as boys that had underestimated the amount of dots and group B was those boys who had overestimated the amount of dots. The boys were then given a number of tasks in which they would allocate points to each other. Each boy did not know who they were allocating points to but they did know which group the boy belonged to three conditions were used as part of this experiment condition one the choice was between two boys from group A the second condition was two boys from group B and the last condition used one boy from each group. What Tajfel identified as part of this research was that the boys overwhelmingly chose to allocate points to the boys who had been indentified as in the same group as themselves. Despite the fact that there was no direct competition between the two groups the participants consistently displayed favouritism towards the boys from the same group. Ellis and Fox (2001) also carried out research in to prejudice and discrimination looking effect of self-identification sexual orientation on helping behaviour. This research involves 235 British men and women were telephone at home. The caller explained that they had dialled the wrong number and that they had no more change to make a further call and asked if the participant would relay a message to the callerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s partner. In the experimental condition the callers partner was identified as the same sex as the caller, and in the controlled condition they were identified as the opposite sex. The finding shoed that overall both gay man and lesbians were less likely to receive help than heterosexuals. Women were also more to receive help than men. The final conclusion to the research showed that people were less likely to offer help to a gay men who found themselves in difficulty. This showed prejudice and discrimination towards gay men. When discussing prejudice or discrimination, stereotyping also needs to be examined Stewart et al. (1979) described stereotyping as a process not only used to simplify environmental and social stimuli, but one that also aids the construction of meaning to those stimuli based on attribution expectations. Whereas Taguirs (1969) defined stereotyping as the tendency to place a person in a category according to some easily and quickly identifiable characteristic such as age, sex, ethic membership, nationality or occupation, and then to attribute to them qualities believed to be typical of a member of that category. Stereotypes seem to provide a simple and economical; way of perceiving the world. In the late 1800s male Chinese immigrants were brought to the U.S. to work on the railroads and as agricultural labours on the West Coast many specialized in laundry services. Some came willingly others were basically kidnapped and brought forcibly. After the transcontinental railroad was completed and it occurred to white Americans that the Chinese workers were still around and might compete with them for jobs, a wave of anti-Chinese sentiment swept the U.S. Chinese men were stereotyped as degenerate heroin addicts whose presence encouraged prostitution, gambling, and other immoral activities. Since most Chinese immigrants were brought here specifically as workers, the vast majority were male few at that time were able to bring their wives. A number of cities on the West Coast experienced riots in which whites attacked Asians and destroyed Chinese sections of town. The Seattle riot resulted in practically the entire Chinese population being rounded up and forcibly sent to San Franci sco. Similar situations in other towns encouraged Chinese workers scattered throughout the West to relocate, leading to the growth of Chinatowns in a few larger cities on the West Coast. Ac cording to Buchanan (2007) many researchers have argued that prejudice is part of human nature and that the only by confronting our authentic nature can we gain real insight into the forces that drive group conflict and learn how we might better manage and defuse such urges. Probable the first formal proposal of a set of social psychological principles for reducing prejudice was from Allportà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s (1954) Contact hypothesis. Prejudice may be reduced by equal status contact between majority and the minority groups in the pursuit of common goals. When people are segregated they are more likely to experience autistic hostility, that is ignorance of other which in turn results in a failure to understand the reason for their actions Lack of contact means there is no reality testing against which to checking our own interpretation of others behaviour, and in turn can enforce negative stereotyping.

Recrystallization and Melting Point Determination

Consider what happens when a solid material is placed in a solvent in which it has a low solubility. Not much! A small fraction of the solid will dissolve, but the rest will just sit there. (Actually, it doesn't just ‘sit there' since an equilibrium is in effect, with solid molecules going into solution, and an equivalent number of dissolved molecules reforming solid, but we see the same amount of undissolved material). How can we get the entire solid to dissolve? One way is to heat the solution — most materials are more soluble in hot solvent than in cold. Suppose we heat to the boiling temperature of the solvent (the highest temperature which is practical), and the entire solid goes into solution. If we now let the solution cool, what will happen? Obviously, at some temperature, the concentration of solute will exceed its solubility, and the solid will start to come back out of solution – it will crystallize. By the time we return to the initial temperature, nearly all of the original material has formed crystals, which can be removed from the solvent by filtration. Now, suppose that the original solid contained small amounts of impurities. These would go into solution as well, but since the impurities are present only in small amounts, they remain soluble when the temperature is lowered again. Thus, the crystals, which come out of solution, are more pure than the original sample. This is the essence of purification by recrystallization (Fig. 1). [pic] Figure 1: An impure solid in: (A) cold solvent in which it has low solubility, (B) solvent that has been warmed up to dissolve all of the solid, and (C) solvent that has cooled down to the original temperature. The crystallized solid is now pure, while the impurities remain in solution. Recrystallization Recrystallization is the preferred method for purification of organic solids. The technique can be used for large or small quantities of materials, and is usually very effective and efficient. The most important aspect of the recrystallization technique is the selection of the solvent. A large number of solvents are commonly used for recrystallization of organic compounds. Among these are water, ethanol, ethyl ether, and hexane to name just a few. A solvent, which works beautifully for one recrystallization, may be totally unsuitable for purification of a different compound – the choice for recrystallization solvent is made on a case-by-case basis. This is because of the variation of solubility of different organic compounds in these solvents. We can identify a set of characteristics which are desirable for a recrystallization solvent: 1. The substance to be purified must have a high solubility in the solvent at its boiling point, and a significantly diminished solubility at lower temperatures (limited only by the freezing temperature of the solvent). Obviously, the first part is necessary so that you can get the material into solution, and the second part is required so that the purified compound will come back out of solution. 2. The solvent should dissolve the impurities at all temperatures. Actually, its OK if the impurity dissolves readily or doesn't dissolve at all, as we'll see. The important point here is that purification will be accomplished only if the impurities remain in solution as the mixture is cooled. This isn't too hard to accomplish if the amount of impurity is small. Obviously, it's a bit more difficult if a large amount of an impurity is present, but if the solubility characteristics of the desired substance are sufficiently different from the impurity, as is often the case, a suitable solvent can usually be found. 3. The solvent must not react with the substance to be purified. It's hard to get your compound to come back out of solution when it is consumed by a reaction. 4. A reasonably volatile solvent is preferred. This consideration is dictated by the need to ultimately remove traces of solvent from the crystals, and this is most easily accomplished by evaporation, either at room temperature or in an oven. Even with an oven to aid in the drying, only moderate temperatures can be used, since you should stay below the melting temperature of the solid, and definitely below temperatures where the material will decompose. Generally speaking, solvents with boiling temperatures below ~150 °C are OK. 5. Ideally, the solvent should be inexpensive, non-toxic, and non-flammable. These are not absolutely required, but desirable characteristics, which can help to determine the choice of a solvent. Obviously, water is an ideal choice based on these criteria, and is the preferred solvent if it satisfies conditions 1-4. How does one go about choosing the proper solvent? If you are dealing with a known compound, it makes sense to use solvents that have been used before. You can go to the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (printed or online), and frequently a solvent suitable for recrystallization will be indicated. This may show up in two places: First, in the column headed â€Å"color, crystalline form† is often listed the solvent used to obtain the crystals in question. Otherwise, you can move to the columns near the right-hand side of the page, which deal with solubility. The CRC has changed its presentation of solubility data over the years. For this purpose, the older editions (before 1980) are significantly better than the recent ones. Whereas the new editions simply list solvents in which the compound is soluble, the older ones provide more information, which can be useful in selecting a crystallization solvent. Qualitative indicators for solubility in various solvents range from i (insoluble), d (slightly), s (soluble), to v (very). Especially useful is the fact that some solvents are given two listings, one for hot solvent, the other for cold. What if you are working with a brand-new compound, which is often the case? Here, the only thing to do is try different solvents. The choice of solvents is often more art than science – everybody has their personal favorites based on their own experience, but those mentioned above are typical solvents to try. A small amount of the solid is placed in a test-tube and a few drops of cold solvent are added. If the solid dissolves, you can forget this solvent – you need low solubility at low temperature. If the solid remains, so far, so good, but this is only the beginning. Now the sample is warmed to the boiling point. If the solid dissolves, things look good. The next test is to let this solution cool, and to see if nice crystals actually form. If they do, you're in luck. Further tests with this solvent on larger samples of material can then determine whether the desired degree if purification is achieved, and if the loss of material is acceptable. Sometimes, though, no crystals form. This may be a problem with the rate of crystal nucleation – that event where the first few molecules get together to form the growing crystal. A trick which often works in this case is to take a glass rod and rub vigorously the wall of the test-tube just below the solvent surface. Often, this will stimulate crystal formation, presumably because some of the microscopic scratches serve as nucleation sites. Alternatively, the solution can be ‘seeded' with a few tiny crystals of the substance (if these are available), and then to allow the solution to stand undisturbed until crystal formation is complete. If no crystals form, you must consider the possibility that the substance is too soluble in this solvent, and the fact that it did not dissolve at first may simply be because it dissolves very slowly. If this is the case, it's back to the drawing board with a new solvent. A not-uncommon result is for the solute to separate from solution as an oil which will not crystallize. This annoying situation arises particularly for low-melting solids and frequently results when the solution becomes saturated at a temperature higher than the melting point of the solute. A remedy which is often effective is to ensure that separation does not occur until the solution has cooled below this melting temperature, either by using more solvent or by switching to a different solvent. Once this is settled, scratching and/or seeding are often helpful for obtaining crystalline product. Quite often, a single solvent which gives suitable results cannot be identified. In such cases, the use of mixed solvents (solvent pair) is often successful. Two solvents are chosen, one which dissolves the substance readily, and another in which the solute is only sparingly soluble. Note that the two solvents must be completely miscible. The usual procedure is to dissolve the crude solid in the better solvent at its boiling point, and to add the weaker solvent dropwise until a faint cloudiness persists, indicating that the solute is starting to come out of solution. A few drops more of the better solvent are then added to put the solute back into solution, and the mixture is allowed to cool to effect crystallization. Typical solvent pairs are water and ethanol, or hexane and benzene, where the ‘weaker' solvent is listed first. These mixed solvent systems are interesting — it seems that the solubility characteristics of the better solvent dominate at higher temperatures, while the mixture behaves more like the weaker solvent at lower temperatures. Once the crystallization solvent is chosen, consideration can be given to other features of the crystallization process. The idea is to maximize the recovery of purified compound. Enough solvent must be used to keep the impurities in solution, but if an excessive amount of solvent is used, a large part of the desired compound will remain in solution, and the recovery will be low. For this reason, the minimum amount of hot solvent which will dissolve the desired compound should be used. It is possible to further improve the recovery of material by harvesting a ‘second crop' of crystals. After the purified crystals have been separated by filtration, the filtrate (called the ‘mother liquor') is concentrated by evaporation of ~1/2 – 2/3 of the solvent. On cooling, more of the compound will crystallize, and this can be isolated by filtration. The purity of these crystals is generally not as good as the original crop, since the concentration of the contaminants in the mother liquor is always increasing. The proper apparatus for recrystallization is the Erlenmeyer flask. A beaker is not appropriate. The shape of the Erlenmeyer flask allows swirling of the mixture without sloshing, and the conical walls tend to condense and return refluxing solvent. The flask should not be overfilled – about 60% of the listed capacity is the maximum, and so the flask volume should be chosen accordingly. Decolorizing a Solution and Hot Filtration Special problems are posed by insoluble impurities and highly colored, resinous contaminants. The best way to remove insoluble material is to filter the hot mixture, while the desired material is dissolved. Insoluble debris will be trapped on the filter paper. The colored, resinous impurities are usually large, relatively polar organic molecules which have a strong tendency to be adsorbed on surfaces. Crystals grown from solutions containing such resins are often discolored by surface contamination by these materials, and it is therefore desirable to also remove them from the solution before recrystallization. They can be taken care of by addition of a small amount of powdered, activated charcoal (Norit ® or Darco ®, also decolorizing carbon) to the hot solution before filtering. Decolorizing carbon has a huge surface area, and readily absorbs the colored impurities. The hot filtration then removes the charcoal; the filtrate, now free of this contamination, is allowed to cool and deposit crystals. The decolorizing/hot filtration procedure requires some care. First, the addition of the powdered charcoal to hot solvent can cause a vigorous foaming which may result in loss of some of the solution. This can be avoided if the hot solution is allowed to cool for 15-20 seconds, and the charcoal is added cautiously. Only a small amount of charcoal is required — add too much and significant amounts of the desired compound will also be absorbed, and low recovery will result. After addition of the charcoal, the mixture should be heated to a gentle boil for a few minutes, to ensure that any compound which might have precipitated during cooling is brought back into solution. Filtration of the hot mixture must be done rapidly to avoid crystallization of material on the filter paper or in the funnel. The setup depicted in Figure 2 shows how the filter can be kept hot during filtration. The speed of filtration is enhanced by the use of a ‘fluted' filter paper and a stemless funnel. ‘Fluting' a filter paper is organic chemistry origami and the process is best demonstrated in person. A fluted paper uses the entire surface area of the filter paper, and therefore filters more rapidly than the conventional conical fold. The stem of a funnel is susceptible to clogging by formation of crystals, so a stemless funnel is used. To minimize crystallization in the filter paper it is common to place a small amount of solvent in the receiving flask, and to heat this to boiling during the filtration. The hot vapors help to keep the filter warm. In addition, it is prudent to use about 10% more than the minimum amount of solvent, to account for evaporation during the heating, and to allow for the small amount of cooling which will occur. Finally, the mixture should be poured onto the filter in small portions which will filter within about 30 s, so that excessive cooling does not occur. The [pic] remainder of the mixture is kept heated until it can be poured on the filter. When all of the solvent has been filtered, it is a good idea to rinse the flask and filter with a small portion of fresh, hot solvent (~5 – 10% of the volume already used). This will help to dissolve and pass through the filter any material which has crystallized. The filtrate should be collected in an appropriately sized Erlenmeyer flask. Some crystals may have formed in the flask by the end of the filtration, but these are often very small and not well formed. They should be dissolved by warming the filtrate. The best crystals are obtained by slow cooling without agitation of the solution. Therefore, the filtrate should be placed in a spot where it can remain undisturbed as it cools. The mouth of the flask may be loosely stoppered, but this is normally not necessary. Crystal growth is normally well along by the time the mixture reaches room temperature. Further cooling in an ice-water bath will cause additional crystallization. Crystals come in a variety of shapes and sizes: long needles, blocky prisms, and flat plates are common. Slow crystal growth not only gives the most pleasing display; the product is generally purer. Too-rapid crystallization generally leads to smaller, more poorly formed (and less pure) crystals. pic] Vacuum Filtration Once crystal formation is complete, the product is isolated by vacuum filtration. This technique permits fast and efficient removal of the mother liquor. A special flat-bottomed funnel (a Buchner funnel) is used in conjunction with a heavy-walled Erlenmeyer flask with a sidearm called a filtering flask. The apparatus is illustrated below (Figure 3). A circle of filter paper, small enough to lie completely flat on the perforated base of the Buchner funnel, but large enough to cover all of the holes, is placed in the funnel, and moistened with a small amount of solvent to hold it in place. With the vacuum on, the cold crystallization mixture is poured as rapidly as possible onto the filter paper. It helps to swirl the flask a few times to loosen the crystals, and with a little bit of skill the entire mixture can be deposited on the filter, with only a few stray crystals adhering to the walls of the flask. The mother liquors are rapidly drawn into the filter flask by suction, and the crystals are squeezed dry of solvent by pressing with a clean cork while drawing air through them. Now, this procedure does not remove all of the mother liquor. Invariably, there is a film of solvent coating the surface of the crystals. Since the mother liquor contains impurities, this must be washed away with fresh solvent. The crystals are washed as follows: the suction is stopped and enough fresh, cold (why? ) solvent is added to just cover the crystals in the funnel (this solvent can be used to rinse the last few crystals out of the crystallization flask). The crystals should be stirred gently with a glass rod or a spatula so that all come in contact with the wash liquid, then the vacuum is restarted and the crystals sucked and pressed dry as before. In some cases, it may be necessary to repeat the wash a 2nd time. Air is drawn through the crystals until they are as dry as possible, at which time they are spread on a watch glass for further drying in the air or in an oven. The steps in recrystallization can be summarized: 1. Dissolve the crude material in a minimum amount of hot solvent. 2. Treat with decolorizing charcoal. 3. Filter hot solution to remove charcoal and other insoluble impurities. 4. Cool to effect crystallization 5. Filter crystals, wash to remove adhering mother liquor. 6. Dry crystals to remove last traces of solvent. Melting Point Determination Once we have purified a solid, how do we establish that the product is, in fact, pure? Undoubtedly, the simplest criterion for purity is determination of the melting point, or more accurately, the melting range. Strictly speaking, the melting point is defined as the single temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid phase of a compound is equal to the vapor pressure of the solid phase, and so the liquid and solid are in equilibrium. These values are actually rather difficult to measure. Much simpler is the determination of the capillary melting range, which, as the name implies, is the temperature interval over which the compound is found to melt. Since, during the melting process, the system is not at equilibrium, this is not identical to the true melting point, but the values are normally very similar. In fact, most of the ‘melting points' in the literature are actually capillary melting point ranges. An important distinction is that the latter is always presented as a range of two temperature readings, from the temperature where melting is first observable to that where melting is complete. For pure compounds, complete melting normally occurs over a very narrow range, often

Emotional Intel Essay

Abstract The purpose of this paper is to present information regarding effects of globalization on the economy and the culture of the Norway, during the past few years. Five sets of research questions were used to form the bases of the paper. The intent is to illiterate the cultural dynamics and business culture of the Country. Knowledge of the influence of culture and business practices will assist one with understanding globalization as it pertains to Norway. Using the information in this paper, individuals like consultants and managers who interact with Norweigians can use this as a framework or perspective Summary of the case study â€Å"A Naà ¯ve Sahab In India† The case study â€Å"A Naà ¯ve Sahab in India† tells the story of Brian Moseley, an Aspen Automotive employee from the US who has just been relocated to India to become the new managing director for Bindi Brake Company that had been acquired by Aspen. Brian’s main goal at Bindi is to improve operations and to â€Å"make the Indians efficient†. During Brian’s visits to the plants he observed many employees socializing instead of working, and found out that performance review and pay for performance were unheard at Bindi and employees were rarely dismissed no matter how poorly they performed their jobs. Brian asked his managers, who were born and educated in India to come up with a strategy plan to improve operations. After many months of frustrating meetings, and episodes when Brian lost his temper with his managers, he announced to the managerial team his own strategic plan to take place immediately that included performance appraisal, personnel cuts, pay -for-performance increases and others. Bindi’s manager did not reinforce the changes and Brian became even more forceful of his ideas, increasing the tension between him and his managers. Briand was referred by his managers as the â€Å"sahab†, a term used to describe Brian’s â€Å"culturally imperialistic† style. Even with all the turmoil, Brain persisted and kept pushing his managers to apply the changes to their subordinates but instead of improving operations, Brian’s decisions pushed most of his managers to resign. All these obstacles made Brian wonder if changes and efficient operations would ever be a reality for the Bindi Brake Company. â€Å"A Naà ¯ve Sahab in India† clearly describes Deb Brian’s authoritarian managerial style and lack of  cultural knowledge of India hurt his goals to transform Bindi into an efficient operations plant for Aspen Automotive. Brian’s personal frame of reference made him judge his Indian’s managers based on his own American values and made his Indians co-workers to see him as an dictatorial man telling them what to do in a disrespectful away. By failing to understand the Indian’s culture in the workplace Brian created a hostile environment and conflicts between him and his managers. Many characters in the â€Å"A Naà ¯ve Sahab in India† can share the responsibility for the lack of change at the Bindi Brake Company. The first to be blamed is Aspen Automotive. Aspen should have better prepared Brian for his new position at Bindi. Aspen should also have directed Brian to attend multicultural training sessions where he could learn and better understand the Indian culture. Secondly, Brian should have taken the initiative to seek â€Å"cultural† assistance from Aspen human resources, from other expatriates or from Rajan in an attempt to find a more cultural sensitive way to approach his managers. Rajan, who had a better understanding of the Western culture due the fact that he was educated in a London University, felt attacked by Brian’s aggressive style but did little to help him. Rajan should have advised Brian that his aggressive managerial style would only bring conflicts to team instead of change in the company. The last one to be blamed is the Indian manager, who had Brian’s trust, and should have been the bridge between Brian and his managers, trying to advise both sides to be more receptive to changes and culturally sensitive. Before Brian can advance and apply his strategy at Bindi, he needs to learn how to be more culturally sensitive. He would benefit from cultural training sessions, which has been proved to be very effective to prepare professionals for intercultural work. By going through such training, Brian would learn how to better approach his managers without being too offensive. Brian will have to re-think his strategies before putting together a new manager team made up with old and newly hired managers, and only then carefully and slowly introduce the expected changes for the company. Male/Female Differences Disparities between males and females in society can be seen everywhere and the work place is no different. Women are expected to be vulnerable and sympathetic to others’ needs, while men are expected to be competitive, strong and rational. In business, these gender differences determine communication behaviors and interactions. A study published in the â€Å"Journal of Social and Development Sciences† confirms, â€Å"the gender of individuals engaged in negotiations will affect the communication style utilized by each individual† (Yu-Te Tu, 2012, p. 125). Women might rely more on non-verbal and indirect communication, which has been noted as a characteristic to those who have less power. Women are still pictured as the fragile gender by society, however many of the exclusive â€Å"female traits† are strengths that can make women more efficient managers than men. For example, women who are able to relate to others easily and possess the ability to empower will be successful mentors to those in their workplace. It has been noted that women also tend to avoid confrontations, as they prefer to seek solut ions to solve the problem. When it comes to emotional intelligence women, once more, they prove that they have an advantage over males. According to the study published by the â€Å"Journal of Business and Psychology†, it states that women scored higher than males on an emotional intelligence test which results imply â€Å"females might be better at managing their emotions and the emotions of others as compared to males† (Mandell & Pherwani, 2003, p.399). It is important to note that emotional intelligence is the key aptitude necessary for successful leadership, which should put women in a more advantageous position to assume managerial positions. Unfortunately the â€Å"glass ceiling† is not the only issue women have to worry about; sexual harassment in the workplace is another big concern for organizations and companies. The majority of victims of sexual harassment in the workplace are women. Studies have shown that more than half of women executives in the U.S. have been a victim of sexual harassment (Central Michigan University, 2008). Sexual harassment has many consequences, for instance, it can be financially costly to the company and cause severe emotional issues for the employee who suffered the harassment. To eliminate sexual harassment, companies are investing in training and have reinforced rules, policies and penalties regarding such inappropriate behavior. Women still have to go through many obstacles to prove themselves efficient as leaders, but big corporations are slowly realizing how much more women can do to improve their business. Differences in Self Disclosure Self-disclosure is the concept of divulging information about oneself with others, whether it is co-workers, family, or friends. According to S. A. Beebe, S. J. Beebe, Remond, Geerinck (2010), they define self-disclosure not only as a strategy of sharing basic information with others, but it is the sharing of information about oneself that may be out of the ordinary that would not necessarily be discoverable otherwise. There are different styles of self-disclosure that derive from the Johari Window, ranging from the turtle and interviewer to the bull-in-the-China shop and transparent. The differences between these styles are based on how much one discloses and depending on how much is disclosed, it will determine the kind and quality of relationship that is formed with another person. Those who are able to disclose much about his or herself are transparent, whereas those who keep to themselves are seen as â€Å"turtles,† which carry an imaginary bubble around them (Central Mic higan University, 2008). Interviewers are those who have no problem asking questions of others but are more likely to shut out to those who ask questions of them, whereas those who possess a â€Å"bull-in-the-China shop† style are those who have no problem giving feedback but shut out those who give them feedback (Central Michigan University, 2008). The information that Chapman (2003) presents on the Johari Window is very similar to the Central Michigan University’s (2008) information. They both discuss the breakdown of the Johari Window, including the discussion of the four panes, known area, hidden area, unknown area, and blind area, although Chapman (2003) does a better job as discussing what each pane means. In order to tie into emotional intelligence, Chapman (2003) give the relationship of the Johari Window to emotional intelligence, suggesting that the Johari Window has offered a new way to assess oneself and the relationships that are formed based on the openness level achieved. All readings offered the same conclusions about self-disclosure and the Johari Window, stating that being open with others offers risks and rewards, however in order to build strong relationships, one must be able to find a balance on the amount of disclosure one will allow. Emotional Intelligence Emotional intelligence is the notion of understanding oneself and how one is  self-aware, how one self-manages, how one is socially aware and how one is able to mange their relationships. The common trend among all definitions of emotional intelligence is that it is the ability to understand and recognize not only one’s own emotions, but also other’s emotions and how they influence one’s relationships and behaviors (Bradberry, Greaves, 2009). The level of emotional intelligence one possesses can greatly influence the interpersonal communication skills one develops. Many could argue that it is important to have a strong sense of emotional intelligence in order to bring cohesion to the workplace, as well as be more understanding of those who come from a different background. In â€Å"Emotional Intelligence and competitive advantage: Examining the relationship from resource-based view,† by Voola, Carlson, and West (2004), the reader learns about Mahatma Gandhi’s influence on the world and how he possessed the emotional intelligence that gave him a competitive advantage over other leaders. Gandhi had the philosophy to provide strategic change, by â€Å"being the change you want to see in the world,† which translates to a crucial part of having a strong emotional intelligence; one must to take the time to understand the other cultures, people, and environments by being socially aware. Gandhi has be viewed as one of the most emotionally intelligent leaders of all time, the vision he created had a positive impact on effective changes among the world. Two scholars, Bradberry and Greaves (2009) have broken down what emotional intelligence into four components, self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management; whereas it has also been broken down into five components of self-awareness, managing emotions, motivating oneself, empathy, and social skill. These components comprise what skills need to be developed in order to achieve that high level of emotional intelligence. Once each of these components is understood, then the process of attaining emotional intelligence will become self-evident. Self-awareness is the ability to know oneself, inside and out; it is the ability to truly understand oneself as you really are (Bradberry, Greaves, 2009). Many people have a difficult time with this component of emotional intelligence because it takes courage and honesty to dig down deep and get in touch with ones  emotions. The component of self-management/managing emotion builds on how well ones self-awareness is developed; a weak self-awareness will produce weak self-management and vise versa. Self-management is the ability to manage ones emotions and understand when and how one should react to a situation before exploding into anger. Motivating oneself is also important when it comes to self-management because this is how one keeps optimistic when things may get tough. Understanding how to recognize and manage ones emotions is the underlying trend when it comes to self-awareness and self-management. As far as social awareness, relationship management, empathy and social skills, these components are what provide the basis for interpersonal relationships. Social awareness is the ability to understand those around you, by being aware of others emotions. This component can be developed by taking the time to observe others and the kinds of emotions they are giving off, whether it is by facial expressions or spoken words; a lot can be learned about another if one takes the time to interpret social cues a person is sending you (Bradberry, Greaves, 2009). Relationship management requires one to be able to demonstrate empathy and social skills, these two subcomponents are very important in building interpersonal relationships. The component of relationship management is built on the foundation of self-awareness, self-management, and social awareness. Each component naturally builds among each other and the stronger each is; the stronger the emotional intelligence one has will be (Bradber ry, Greaves, 2009). All of these components of emotional intelligence are crucial in terms of building strong and meaningful interpersonal relationships. A thorough understanding of emotional intelligence is needed for any workplace to achieve a high level of success. Emotional intelligence is an individual characteristic, however it is also up to that individual on how one will use their emotions to interact with others (Guillen, Florent-Treacy, 2011). As the reader has seen, emotional intelligence is a foundation on which one builds and develops their relationships; it is used to provide a deeper understanding of oneself and those around in and out of the workplace. A study done by Guillen and Florent-Treacy (2011) provided the basis that  emotional intelligence in the workplace is not directly correlated with how a leader is perceived, but is necessary for leaders’ collaborative capabilities, more so how they influence teamwork. Harms and Crede (2010) have also found this to be true in their studies, that emotional intelligence does not determine the outcome of a leaders leadership, but does have a positive impact on school and work performance. One could argue that emotional intelligence is a viable source of a workplaces success. Pearman (2011) presents a table with different situations and how those with a good grasp on emotional intelligence have an advantage in sorting the situation. For instance if one is working for any company that deals with customers, one may be presented with a situation where customers become unhappy. Those with a high emotional intelligence are able to help engage the individual who is unhappy by having a welcoming attitude, listening with an empathetic ear, and offering problem solving skills in order to help the satisfy the customer (Pearman, 2011). There are multiple examples about emotional intelligence in the workplace, whether it is in how one handles workplace relationships, interactions with customers, ineffective leaders and the list goes on an on. Emotional intelligence is a subject that is seeing an increase in studies as to how and if it correlates with job performance, leadership abilities, work relationships, etc. There have many studies that have proven one aspect or another as to how emotional intelligence ties into the workplace. It is importance to receive training on the topic of emotional intelligence because it is a growing subject that needs to be recognized as having a part in the successes of an organization or relationship. Pearman makes a great representation of how important teaching emotional intelligence is to leaders and employees alike. He states, â€Å"Emotional intelligence facilitates not just communication effectiveness (or other competing training topics) but also an increase in individual performance that affects all levels of the organization† (Pearman, 2011, p. 71). Emotional Intelligence Research This study is intended to assess whether there is a relationship between emotional intelligence and interpersonal communication with respect to  developing managerial capabilities. The study was done by using the survey that provides data for each of the five areas of one’s emotional intelligence – self-awareness, managing emotions, motivating oneself, empathy, and social skills. Students in graduate school completed the survey. This study was a qualitative design as well as a quantitative design. What this researcher is looking for is a person’s emotional intelligence at work. Who participated in the Survey? The instrument that used was the typical Liker scale survey. This particular Likert scale survey is called what’s your emotional intelligence at work? (See Table 1). According to the developers of the instrument, the Liker scale has a high reliability and validity. The following focuses on a research project, consisting of three employees who shared their experiences about emotional intelligence in the workplace. Each person volunteered to describe their interpersonal relationships in the workplace by responding to a set of questions. Below is a summary of each person’s responses. Person A is a career Military Soldier and currently serves as a senior Logistics manager for the U.S. Army as a part of an organization consisting of over 300 personnel. The organization is a very interpersonal cohesive atmosphere. Person B has served in the information technology field for over twenty years. Currently, works as an organizational IT applications manager ensuring IT compliance pertaining to Disaster Recovery Programs globally. Person C currently works for the Air Force, commanding communication satellites as a satellite vehicle operator and works closely with a crew to achieve the mission. It is imperative that the crew works well together and that cohesion is visible, since they are dealing with a multibillion-satellite constellation that provides secure communication not only to those overseas, but also to the president. Person C’s job is crucial to the Air Force and military in order to properly maintain the health of the satellite. Understanding the Survey The first part of emotional intelligence is self-awareness, which means being in tuned to your feelings, being cognizant of your internal feelings. The second part is managing emotions that are aimed at leaders calibrating their  attitudes and moods so as to not negatively impact the workplace climate. The third part is the ability to inspire and instill optimism in the workplace regardless of challenges. The fourth part is the capability to empathize with other and identify how others are feeling without them telling you how they feel. The fifth part means to have the ability to make a personal connection with others and influence others is in a way that is personally engaging. This survey demonstrates a sign of one’s emotional intelligence. If one receives a total score of 100 or more, one can expect to have high emotional intelligence. A scoring of 50 to 100 highlights one’s level of emotional intelligence as good. There are five different components of emotional intelligence that consist of the following; self-awareness, managing emotions, motivating oneself, empathy, and social skills. If one reaches a score of 20 they are considered to have a high level and a score of 10 is low. Each student scored well for self awareness, 19 (Person A), 18 (Person B), and 19 (Person C). For this survey managing emotions scores were slightly different because Person B scored 22 while person C scored 18 and person A scored 19. Motivating oneself tends to instill ones confidence person A scored 20, while person B scored 19 and person C scored 18. In this survey when it comes, empathy organizations are looking for managers who possess caring attitudes -person A scored 22, while person B scored 21, and person C scored 20. As it pertains to social skills are always a critical attribute to have in the workplace and person B scored 24, person A scored 21 and person C scored 20. Overall person A scored 101, person B scored 104, and person C scored slightly lower than the other at 95. Table 1: Emotional Intelligence Survey Results Table 2: Emotional Intelligence Survey Results Conclusion Only recently, has attention been directed to understanding the role of emotional intelligence in the work place and how the process may play in the development of manager’s abilities to improve work environments. The case study in this paper discussed communication problems that might have been avoided had the expatriate experienced intercultural, professional development, before visiting India. Focusing on one’s emotional intelligence in the workplace has beneficial outcomes for increasing trust and improving  interpersonal relationships. Results of the emotional intelligence survey indicated three participants effectively used empathy and social skills and effectively managed their emotion while engaged in the work place. Reference Beebe, S. A., Beebe, S. J., Remond, M. V., & Geerinck, T. M. (2010). Interpersonal communication relating to others: Self-disclosure. Retrieved from http://wps.prenhall.com/ca_ab_beebe_intercomm_4/48/12319/3153764.cw/-/3153798/index.html Bradberry, T., & Greaves, J. (2009). Emotional Intelligence 2.0. San Diego, CA: TalentSmart. Central Michigan University. (2008). Administration, globalization and multiculturalism. (2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Chapman, A. (2003.). Johari Window: A Model for Self-Awareness, Personal Development, Group Development, and Understanding Relationship. Retrieved from http://www.usc.edu/hsc/ebnet/Cc/awareness/Johariwindowexplain.pdf Guillen, L. and Florent-Treacy, E. (2011). Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness: The mediating influence of collaborative behaviors. Retrieved from http://www.insead.edu/facultyresearch/research/doc.cfm?did=47210 Harms, P. and Crede, M. (2010). Emotional intelligence and transformational and transactional l eadership: A meta-analysis. Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1013&context=leadershipfacpub&seiredir=1&referer=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Furl%3Fsa%3Dt%26rct%3Dj%26q%3Dthe%2520relationship%2520of%2520emotional%2520intelligence%2520and%2520transformational%2520%2520%2520leadership%2520behavior%2520in%2520nonprofit%2520executive%2520leaders%252C%2520meredith%252C%2520c.l%2520%26source%3Dweb%26cd%3D2%26cad%3Drja%26ved%3D0CDAQFjAB%26url%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Fdigitalcommons.unl.edu%252Fcgi%252Fviewcontent.cgi%253Farticle%253D1013%2526context%253Dleadershipfacpub%26ei%3DCNlUejyNKjk0QGMnYGYBA%26usg%3DAFQjCNGSndQRyR1zaThfaYfkv1b9hYdeLA%26bvm%3Dbv.45645796%2Cd.dmQ#search=%22relationship%20emotional%20intelligence%20transformational%20leadership%20behavior%20nonprofit%20executive%20leaders%2C%20meredith%2C%20c.l%22 Mandell, B., & Pherwani, S. (2003). Relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership style: A gender comparison. Journal of Business and Psychology, 17(3), 387. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.proxy.davenport.edu/docview/196904482?accountid=40195 Pearman, R. (2011). The leading edge: Using emotional intelligence to enhance performance. T+D, 65, 3 p. 68-71. Retrieved from http://eiinsider.wordpress.com/2011/02/09/the-leading-edge-using-emotional-intelligence-to-enhance-performance/ Sy, T and Cote, S. (2003). Emotional intelligence. A key ability to succeed in the matrix organization. Retrieved from http://hoosonline.virginia.edu/atf/cf/%7Bbda77a21-0229-499a-ae10-eadbe96789d6%7D/EI%20AND%20MANAGEMENT%20IN%20MATRIX%20ORGANIZATIONS.PDF Voola, R., Carlson, J.and West, A. (2004). Emotional intelligence and competitive advantage: Examining the relationship from a resource-base view. Strategic Change; 13, 2 Yu-Te Tu. (2012). Negotiation style comparisons by gender among greater China, Chungyu Institute of Technology. Retrieved from http://www.ifrnd.org/JSDS/Vol%203/3(4)%20Apr%202012/3.pdf

Symptoms And Treatment Of Arthritis - 1519 Words

PHYSICAL THERAPY AND ITS ROLE IN ARTHRITIS Daymara Nodarse Florida National University Professor: Dr. Kelly Krenkel November 4, 2014 Arthritis and other such rheumatic conditions have been considered to be the most common medical complain as well as one of the leading causes of disability and activity limitation among the population of the United States. The rates of arthritis diagnosis have been steadily increasing in the last 20 years. Based on surveys and research it was determined that by the end of 1990, it was estimated that almost 40 million people suffered from arthritis and/or were currently being treated for it (MMWR, 2001). Further studies show that by the end of 2005, this number had increased by almost 10 million people as reported by the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) and over 23 million had reported that although they were not yet diagnosed they were dealing with chronic joint symptoms and conditions (Atkinson, 2009). 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